History of "Chocolate"

 The history of chocolate dates back thousands of years, with its origins traced to ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica, specifically the regions that are now modern-day Mexico and Central America. Here's a brief overview of the history of chocolate

1.      Ancient Mesoamerica: The Olmec civilization, which thrived around 1500 BCE, is believed to be the first to cultivate cacao plants and use them to create a beverage. The Mayans, who succeeded the Olmecs, also held cacao in high regard and consumed it as a bitter, frothy drink during religious ceremonies and important social events. The Aztecs, who came later, adopted the Mayan traditions and considered cacao to be a sacred gift from the gods.

2.      Cacao as Currency: Cacao beans held significant value among the Mayans and Aztecs. They were used as currency, and the beans were traded for goods and services. The beans were so valuable that they were even counterfeited by other seeds or clay.

3.      European Arrival: The first Europeans to encounter cacao were the Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés. In 1521, Cortés and his troops conquered the Aztec empire, and they were introduced to the drink made from cacao beans. Initially, the Spanish found the bitter taste unappealing, but they gradually acquired a taste for it. They brought cacao back to Spain, where it was modified by adding sugar and other sweeteners.

4.      European Adaptation: Chocolate remained a luxury drink in Europe for several centuries, primarily enjoyed by the aristocracy and the elite. The Spanish managed to keep their chocolate-making process a secret for many years. However, by the 17th century, chocolate had gained popularity and spread to other European countries, including France, Italy, and England.

5.      Industrial Revolution: In the 18th century, technological advancements, such as the invention of steam-powered machines, transformed the production of chocolate. In 1828, Dutch chemist Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed a hydraulic press that allowed the separation of cocoa butter from roasted cacao beans, resulting in the creation of cocoa powder. This innovation made chocolate more accessible and opened the doors for further developments in the chocolate industry.

6.      Solid Chocolate: The next significant milestone occurred in 1847 when British chocolate manufacturer Joseph Fry produced the first solid chocolate bar. Fry's creation marked the beginning of the era of chocolate bars, which would become immensely popular worldwide.

7.      Chocolate Industry Growth: The 19th and 20th centuries witnessed remarkable growth in the chocolate industry. Companies such as Cadbury, Nestlé, and Hershey's emerged, introducing new products and refining the production processes. Milk chocolate, created by adding powdered milk to chocolate, became increasingly popular, making chocolate even more appealing to a wider audience.

8.      Modern Chocolate: In recent decades, the chocolate industry has continued to evolve, with various innovations and trends emerging. Artisanal chocolate makers have gained prominence, emphasizing high-quality ingredients and unique flavors. Dark chocolate, with its potential health benefits, has gained popularity, and there has been a rise in demand for ethically sourced and sustainable chocolate.

Today, chocolate is enjoyed in various forms worldwide, including bars, truffles, bonbons, and more. It has become a global indulgence, deeply rooted in cultural traditions and celebrated for its rich taste and versatility.

History of "Universities"

 The history of universities can be traced back to ancient civilizations, such as India, China, Greece, and Rome, where centers of learning were established to study and teach various subjects. However, the modern university system has its roots in medieval Europe.

In the early Middle Ages, education was largely conducted by religious institutions, such as monasteries and cathedrals, where the curriculum focused on religious studies and Latin language. In the 12th and 13th centuries, guilds of students and teachers began to form in several European cities, such as Paris, Bologna, and Oxford, where they came together to study and teach a particular subject or field.

The first university to be established in Europe was the University of Bologna, founded in Italy in 1088, which focused on law, theology, and medicine. The University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, was another early institution of higher education that specialized in theology, law, medicine, and the liberal arts.

During the Renaissance, the university system expanded, and new disciplines were added, including the study of science, mathematics, and the arts. This led to the establishment of new universities, including the University of Leipzig in Germany and the University of Edinburgh in Scotland.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, universities continued to evolve, with many new disciplines being introduced, such as engineering, social sciences, and business. The expansion of the university system was also aided by government support and funding, which allowed universities to become larger and more diverse.

Today, universities play a crucial role in higher education and research, with many offering a wide range of degree programs, research opportunities, and cultural activities. Universities have become important centers of intellectual and cultural exchange, attracting scholars and students from all over the world, and contributing to the advancement of knowledge and the development of society.

History of "Cement"

 

The use of cement in one of the other form dates back to ancient times. The Egyptians used a form of cement made from gypsum to build their pyramids. Greeks and Romans used a form of cement made from lime and volcanic ash.

Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer from Leeds, England, patented Portland cement In 1824, which he named after the color of the stone quarried on the Isle of Portland.

Portland cement is made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay in a kiln to form a material called clinker, which is then ground into a fine powder and mixed with gypsum to make cement. However, the modern production of cement began in the early 19th century.

Aspdin's invention quickly gained popularity, and by the late 19th century, cement production had become a major industry. The development of the rotary kiln in the 1890s made the production of cement more efficient and led to the mass production of cement.

Today, cement is one of the most widely used building materials in the world, used in the construction of construction and other infrastructure projects.

The production of cement is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for around 7% of global carbon dioxide emissions. As a result, there is ongoing research into more sustainable forms of cement production, such as the use of alternative fuels and the development of new types of cement that produce fewer emissions.

Tractors have Bigger Rear Wheels and Smaller Front Wheels. Why?

Tractors have a different types of work to undertake in the fields. Tires of different sizes in the first instance make right contact with the ground. In the field, tractor can pull heavy weight and gives better digging experience in the rough and tough fields. Different type of tires prevent from sinking, balance weight, maintain stability and the maintain power. The reasons tractors have different wheels are:

Grip On The Ground: Bigger tires as rear wheels work perfectly on muddy fields and avoid slipping. Secondly the broad tires balances the weight and also covers the larger surface areas to distribute the weight equally. Pulling heavy  loads behind the tractor also produces great pressure on the rear wheels and bigger rear wheels do the gripping job flawlessly.

Better Forward Visibility: Small size of wheels in the front provide better view on the ground. It is much easier to see everything as the driver seat is set at higher position which keeps an eye both on rear and front wheels. Driving seat at higher elevation in rear wheel tractor makes farming easy as the driver can easily see the corners of the fields and roads and becomes easier to plough the land with better forward visibility.

Handling: Smaller wheels at the front offer better handling feature to the tractor by the driver. Driver can easily turn through sharp corners in the field with small front wheels in the front.

These are the tops reasons tractors have bigger rear wheels and smaller front wheels. Different size of wheels distributes the weight equally on all the tires.

The History of Socks

 

Socks are probably the oldest type of clothing that is still in use today in improved form. Long before the concept of wearing cloths, socks have been in use since the Store Ages. Going through the Stone Ages, cca. 500 BC, the ‘socks’ that our ancestors wore looked nothing like what we have today. Clues left behind of that age, from the cave paintings and archaeological remains, one finds that they seem like these socks were made from animal skins and pelts tied around the ankle. In the Greek poet Hesiod writings, in the 8^th Century BC mention of socks are there. In his poem, “Works and Days”, Hesiod mentions, ‘piloi’, a type of sock made from matted animal hair worn under sandals. Romans, later on wrap their feet in strips of leather or woven fabric. Around the 2^nd century AD, they started sewing the pieces of fabric together and making fitted socks and were called ‘udones’. They are the first socks to resemble what we are wearing these days.

The first woollen socks to be discovered were unearthed at Vindolanda in Northumbria and they date back to the 2nd century AD. They are a child-sized pair made from woven wool cloth meant to protect against the rough British weather. Roman tablets found at the site even include the instruction to “send more socks”.

Also around that time, the first knit socks were being made in Ancient Egypt. The earliest known surviving pair of knitted socks, made with a technique called naalbinding, dates from 300 – 500 AD and was found at Oxyrhynchus on the Nile in Egypt. The socks feature split toes and are designed to be worn with sandals.

By the 5th century AD, holy people of Europe would wear socks called ‘puttees’ which symbolized purity.

 

A child’s woollen sock dating back to the 2nd century AD found at Vindolanda

The History of Shoes

The history, changes, tendencies, material used in footwear can be divided into the main world history eras:

Prehistory (2,5 million BC – 1250 BC)

Antiquity (1250 BC – 476)
The Middle Ages (476 – 1453)
Early Modern Times (1453 – 1918)
Modern Times (1918 - these days).

1991 is an important date in the history of footwear because this is the year when, at the border of Austria and Italy, archaeologists found a naturally mummified human named Oetzi from the Stone Age who died about 3300 years before our era. This Alpine traveller was wearing shoes made from deerskin with a sole made from bearskin and stuffed with hay.

During different eras there were different views of the world, different understandings of culture and art, different economic and political factors which played an important role in the materials used, shapes and styles of the footwear. The discovery and capture of new lands, new technologies and different understandings of the world changed the style, fashion  and material of footwear. Traditionally, shoes have been made from leather, wood or canvas, but in the 2010s, they are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petro-chemical derived materials. Though the human foot is adapted to varied terrain and climate conditions, it is still vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and temperature extremes, which the people adopt accordingly.

History of Clothing

There is no information about when we started using clothes. However, Anthropologists think that animal skins and vegetation were adapted as protection from weather conditions in ancient times. There is the other idea that clothing may have been invented first for the purposes, such as magic, decoration, cult or prestige, and later-on found as means of protection. There are various archeological findings by wan of representation of clothing in art which can help to determine when particular clothing appeared in history.

During the Stone Age, textiles appeared in the Middle East. There is also evidence that humans may have begun wearing clothing somewhere from 100,000 to 500,000 years ago. Primitive sewing needles have been found which dated back to around 40,000 years ago. Dyed flax fibers which have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia are old some 36,000 years. Some 25,000 years ago the Venus figurines started appearing in Europe, that were depicted with clothing having also basket hats or caps, belts at the waist and a strap of cloth above the breast.

First material used for clothing that was not leather. Nålebinding, which is another early textile method - a type of precursor of knitting, appeared somewhere in 6500 BC as some evidence tells. At a Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia were found oldest known woven textiles of the Near East. They were used for wrapping the dead. Flax was cultivated from c. 8000 BC in the Near East but sheep are bred much later in 3000BC. Cotton was used for clothing in Ancient India from 5th millennium BC. Linen cloth was made in Ancient Egypt from the Neolithic period. Flax was grown even earlier. Ancient Egypt also knew about different spinning techniques like the drop spindle, hand-to-hand spinning, and rolling on the thigh as well as about horizontal ground loom and vertical two-beam loom which came from Asia.

The earliest proof of silk production in China dates from between 5000 and 3000 BC and is in the form of cocoon of the domesticated silkworm which was cut in half by a sharp knife. Japan started with weaving in Jōmon period which lasted from 12,000 BC to 300BC. There is evidence of pottery figurines that were depicted with clothing and a piece of cloth made from bark fibers dating from 5500BC. Some primitive needles were also found as well as hemp fibers and pattern imprints on pottery which proves existence of weaving techniques in Japan at that time. Silk Road was very important for exchange of luxury textiles between East and West. It helped in the development of the great civilizations of China, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, the Indian subcontinent and Rome that traded along the route.